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In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects. Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide. As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racial discrimination often coincides with racist mindsets, whereby the individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an outgroup as both racially defined and morally inferior. Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups. While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects in the lives of people through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination. These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs. When people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. Furthermore, people often self-identify as members of a race for political reasons. For instance, African-American English is a language spoken by many African Americans, especially in areas of the United States where racial segregation exists. Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions and language.
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Īlthough commonalities in physical traits such as facial features, skin color, and hair texture comprise part of the race concept, the latter is a social distinction rather than an inherently biological one. This view rejects the notion that race is biologically defined. Such racial identities reflect the cultural attitudes of imperial powers dominant during the age of European colonial expansion. This often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as "white". Modern scholarship views racial categories as socially constructed, that is, race is not intrinsic to human beings but rather an identity created, often by socially dominant groups, to establish meaning in a social context.
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2 Historical origins of racial classification.
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Although still used in general contexts, race has often been replaced by less ambiguous and loaded terms: populations, people(s), ethnic groups, or communities, depending on context. Since the second half of the 20th century, the association of race with the ideologies and theories of scientific racism has led to the use of the word race itself becoming problematic. While some researchers use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits or observable differences in behaviour, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race often is used in a naive or simplistic way, and argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance by pointing out that all living humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, and (as far as applicable) subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.
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Įven though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptualizations of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways, some of which have essentialist implications. Scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits. While partially based on physical similarities within groups, race is not an inherent physical or biological quality. Modern scholarship regards race as a social construct, that is, a symbolic identity created to establish some cultural meaning. First used to refer to speakers of a common language and then to denote national affiliations, by the 17th century the term race began to refer to physical (phenotypical) traits. A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.